Online master’s degree: Analyzing the accessibility of international education in the Philippines – A global marketing perspective. Part I.

This systematic review investigates the accessibility of online master’s degree programs in the Philippines through a global marketing lens. Despite the growing prevalence of digital education in international higher education, significant gaps remain in understanding accessibility challenges in developing economies. Through a structured analysis of 40 elusive peer-reviewed articles (2015-2023), this study evaluates five key accessibility factors: technological infrastructure, affordability, institutional reputation, cultural relevance, and marketing strategies. The research integrates Technology Acceptance Model, Diffusion of Innovation, and Community of Inquiry frameworks to develop a multidimensional understanding of accessibility barriers. Findings reveal persistent digital divides, particularly in rural areas (where connectivity reaches only 30-45% of urban levels), and demonstrate how targeted marketing strategies can address these barriers. The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated digital transformation while exposing infrastructure limitations and readiness gaps. This research contributes a multi-dimensional accessibility framework integrating technological, economic, cultural, and marketing dimensions, providing actionable insights for higher education institutions, policymakers, and global education marketers seeking to enhance accessibility in developing economies like the Philippines.

1 Introduction

Digital transformation has fundamentally reshaped global higher education, establishing online learning as a significant alternative to traditional instruction. Online master’s programs have gained prominence by offering flexible, accessible educational pathways across geographical boundaries. These programs present unique opportunities and challenges in developing economies like the Philippines. This systematic review examines the accessibility of online master’s programs in the Philippines through a global marketing lens, analyzing how international institutions design and market their offerings to Filipino learners.
Higher education institutions (HEIs) increasingly expand their reach through digital platforms to serve students from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds (Altbach et al. 2019; Mok 2016). In the Philippines, online education addresses barriers of cost, location, and inflexible schedules (Malbas et al. 2023). However, challenges, including digital inequality, infrastructure limitations, and cultural misalignment, necessitate an analysis of how marketing strategies influence accessibility in this context.
This paper synthesizes existing literature to identify key factors affecting the accessibility of online master’s programs in the Philippines. By examining the interplay between global marketing approaches, institutional offerings, and Filipino learners’ unique characteristics, this research develops a multidimensional framework for stakeholders. The findings contribute to creating inclusive and effective marketing practices for HEIs, policymakers, and others in the online education ecosystem.

1.1 Research gap and problem statement

Despite the increasing global adoption of online education, a significant gap remains in understanding how these programs address learners’ unique challenges and needs in developing countries like the Philippines. While global marketing strategies are instrumental in expanding the reach of online master’s degree programs, limited research explores how these strategies are tailored to align with the socioeconomic, cultural, and technological context of Filipino learners (Ortiga 2018; Symaco and Tee 2019). Furthermore, most existing studies focus on the broader impact of online education without delving into the specific barriers and opportunities in accessing international programs from a localized perspective (Zuhairi et al. 2020; Reyes and Gopinathan 2015).
The COVID-19 pandemic has expedited the proliferation of online learning, enabling higher education institutions (HEIs) to rapidly adopt digital transformation (Toquero 2020; Jeong et al. 2024). However, this shift also exposed significant disparities in digital infrastructure, internet accessibility, and digital literacy in the Philippines, further highlighting learners’ challenges in accessing quality online education (Aristovnik et al. 2020; Alipio 2020). While technological advancements such as learning management systems (LMS) and digital platforms like Canvas and Zoom have been widely adopted, their effectiveness in bridging educational inequalities remains underexplored (Joaquin et al. 2020; Cuaton, 2020).
Another critical gap lies in the transition from massive open online courses (MOOCs) to full-fledged online degree programs offered by traditional universities, particularly in the Philippine context (Hayashi et al. 2020). Although MOOCs have paved the way for online education, the increasing prevalence of structured, university driven programs raises questions about scalability, sustainability, and inclusivity in meeting the needs of diverse learners (Kanwar and Carr 2020; Fung et al. 2022).
This paper seeks to address these gaps by systematically reviewing the current state of online master’s degree programs in the Philippines. Specifically, it examines the following:
1. The extent to which global marketing strategies consider the Philippines’ unique cultural, economic, and technological landscape.
2. The challenges and opportunities associated with the digital transformation of Philippine HEIs, particularly in offering internationally recognized online programs.
3. The role of policy, technological infrastructure, and marketing in enhancing the accessibility of online master’s degree programs.

By addressing these gaps, this research attempts to offer actionable insights for higher education institutions, legislators, and marketers seeking to boost the accessibility and effectiveness of online education in the Philippines.

2 Literature review

2.1 The rise of online education

Online education has revolutionized the delivery of higher education, enabling learners to transcend geographical and temporal boundaries (Castro and Tumibay 2021; Kanwar and Carr 2020). Studies highlight the significant role of technology in creating new educational opportunities, particularly in countries with limited access to quality education (Choudaha and Van Rest 2018). For developing nations like the Philippines, online education represents a means to bridge educational gaps and align with global standards (Ortiga 2018; Reyes and Gopinathan 2015).

2.2 Status quo of higher education in the Philippines

Higher education in the Philippines has traditionally relied on face-to-face instruction, with a limited focus on digital transformation until recent years. The integration of online learning into mainstream education accelerated dramatically during the COVID-19 pandemic, exposing the vulnerabilities and potential of the country’s educational infrastructure (Toquero 2020). Learning management systems (LMS) like Canvas, Zoom, and Google Classroom became pivotal in ensuring continuity, while HEIs adapted quickly to offer online degrees, including traditional MBA programs, to cater to the changing needs of learners (Joaquin et al. 2020).

2.3 Shift from MOOCs to university-driven online programs

Initially, massive open online courses (MOOCs) dominated the online education landscape, offering learners globally accessible yet often non-credit-bearing courses. However, the pandemic catalyzed a shift toward traditional universities offering full-fledged online degree programs. In the Philippines, this trend is evident in the growing number of HEIs that have developed online MBA and master’s programs to attract both local and international students (Hayashi et al. 2020; Fung et al. 2022). These programs emphasize personalized learning experiences and institutional credibility, marking a departure from the open-access nature of MOOCs.

2.4 Accessibility challenges in the Philippine context

For this study, „accessibility“ in online education encompasses multiple dimensions beyond mere technical access. The researcher conceptualizes accessibility as a multifaceted construct comprising: (1) technological accessibility – the ability to connect to and navigate digital learning environments; (2) economic accessibility – affordability relative to local economic conditions; (3) pedagogical accessibility – alignment with learners’ educational backgrounds and learning styles; and (4) cultural accessibility – compatibility with local values, norms, and expectations. This comprehensive conceptualization allows for a more nuanced analysis of how global marketing strategies address or overlook specific accessibility barriers in the Philippine context.
Various factors, including technological infrastructure, affordability, and regulatory frameworks, influence the accessibility of online master’s degree programs in the Philippines. The country’s digital divide, defined as variances in internet access and digital proficiency, creates substantial challenges to participation in online education (Aristovnik et al. 2020; Carbonilla Gorra and Bhati 2016). Furthermore, the affordability of online programs remains a concern for many Filipino learners, as economic inequalities continue to affect access to education (Marginson 2018; Tri et al. 2021). Regulatory frameworks, such as the Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education Act, have aimed to enhance accessibility but require further refinement to address the nuances of online learning (Ortiz et al. 2019).

2.5 Global marketing strategies and international education

Global marketing strategies play a pivotal role in promoting online master’s programs as higher education institutions (HEIs) compete internationally in an evolving digital landscape. These strategies comprise three interconnected dimensions: digital marketing techniques, strategic partnerships, and culturally-responsive approaches (Kanwar and Carr 2020; Symaco and Tee 2019). When effectively integrated, these strategies enable HEIs to establish multinational presence, overcome geographical limitations, and position their programs competitively in the global higher education market. In the context of accessibility, global marketing functions not merely as promotion but as a strategic bridge connecting international educational opportunities with local learner needs.

2.5.1 Digital marketing and branding

The utilization of digital marketing tools including social media platforms, search engine optimization (SEO), and customized adverts is an important part of the global marketing strategies.
These approaches allow HEIs to reach prospective students across borders while tailoring their outreach to specific demographics. For instance, well-crafted content campaigns highlighting program flexibility, affordability, and employability outcomes have been shown to resonate with global learners. Furthermore, HEIs employ data analytics to understand online behavior better, enabling them to create personalized marketing messages that appeal to different cultural and educational expectations.

2.5.2 Partnerships and international collaboration

HEIs increasingly rely on partnerships with international institutions, governmental organizations, and private entities to enhance their marketing reach. Collaborative efforts, such as dual-degree programs, study-abroad pathways, and exchange initiatives, bolster credibility and attract students who seek global exposure in their academic journey (Kanwar and Carr 2020). These collaborations often include co-branding efforts, enabling institutions to share resources and access previously untapped markets.

2.5.3 Localized approaches and cultural sensitivity

In contexts such as the Philippines, cultural relevance and alignment with local needs are critical factors in the success of marketing strategies for online education (Toquero 2020; Fung et al. 2022). Filipino learners, characterized by diverse socioeconomic backgrounds and strong family-oriented values, often prioritize affordability, program flexibility, and alignment with career opportunities. Thus, localized approaches – such as integrating culturally relevant imagery, language, and case studies into promotional materials – help HEIs connect meaningfully with their target audience. For example, highlighting alumni success stories in industries important to the Philippines, such as education, healthcare, or business process outsourcing (BPO), can create a sense of relatability and aspirational appeal.

2.5.4 Tailored messaging and program design

Studies underscore the significance of tailoring both messaging and program design to meet the diverse profiles of Filipino learners. Ortiga (2017) emphasizes that online learners in the Philippines often balance academic pursuits with work and family obligations. As such, marketing messages that highlight program flexibility, asynchronous learning options, and opportunities for professional advancement resonate strongly with this demographic. Similarly, the design of online master’s programs must consider the local context, incorporating modules that address regional challenges, such as disaster management, environmental sustainability, or technology integration in rural education.

2.5.5 Challenges and opportunities

Despite these strategies, HEIs face challenges such as fostering trust in online learning, overcoming perceptions of lower quality than traditional education, and ensuring technological accessibility for underserved populations. However, the rise of internet connectivity and digital literacy in the Philippines presents a unique opportunity for HEIs to expand their reach. Innovative marketing tactics, such as leveraging influencers, hosting virtual open houses, and creating interactive program previews, can further enhance engagement and drive enrollment.

2.6 Socioeconomic and cultural factors

Socioeconomic and cultural factors significantly influence the accessibility of online education in the Philippines. The economic landscape, characterized by a growing middle class and a high demand for skills development, creates a fertile ground for online programs (Ortiga 2018; Reyes and Gopinathan 2015). However, cultural perceptions of online education, including concerns about quality and recognition, affect learner preferences and choices (Carbonilla Gorra and Bhati 2016; Marginson 2018). Addressing these concerns through transparent marketing and robust support systems is essential for increasing adoption.

2.7 Technological innovations in online education

Technological advancements, such as artificial intelligence (AI), augmented reality (AR), and data analytics, have the potential to enhance the accessibility and quality of online master’s degree programs (Popenici and Kerr 2017; Becker et al. 2017). In the Philippines, leveraging these innovations to create engaging and adaptive learning environments can mitigate existing challenges and foster greater inclusion (Hayashi et al. 2020; Cuaton 2020). The integration of these technologies into global marketing strategies can further strengthen the appeal of online programs to Filipino learners (Joaquin et al. 2020).

2.8 Opportunities and challenges amid COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the adoption of online education globally, presenting unique opportunities and challenges for the Philippine higher education sector (Toquero 2020; Aristovnik et al. 2020). While the pandemic highlighted the potential of online programs to ensure continuity of learning, it also exposed gaps in digital infrastructure and readiness among Filipino learners (Alipio 2020; Rashid and Yadav 2020). Lessons learned during this period underscore the need for resilience and adaptability in educational policies and marketing strategies (Joaquin et al. 2020; Lytras et al. 2022).
The accessibility of online master’s degree programs in the Philippines is shaped by a complex interplay of factors, including technological, economic, cultural, and institutional dynamics. While global marketing strategies have successfully expanded the reach of international education, addressing the unique challenges faced by Filipino learners requires a localized and inclusive approach. Future research should focus on evaluating the long-term impact of these strategies and identifying best practices for creating equitable and sustainable online education ecosystems.

2.8.1 International comparative analysis of marketing approaches

Marketing strategies for online master’s programs differ widely across global regions, offering valuable lessons for the Philippine context. In Southeast Asia, Singapore’s success as an education hub stems from government-institution partnerships and rigorous quality assurance frameworks (Tan 2017), while Malaysia employs dual-language campaigns that balance global appeal with local accessibility. Western models highlight institutional prestige, career outcomes, and student support. North American institutions leverage alumni success and employer recognition (Choudaha and Van Rest 2018), whereas European models emphasize financial transparency and robust student services (Huang 2018). Australia offers targeted campaigns for Filipino students, emphasizing cultural affinity, timezone alignment, and flexible delivery models, resulting in a 30-45% enrollment increase between 2018-2021 (Dumpit and Fernandez 2017). Meanwhile, scalable Asian models, such as China’s tech-university partnerships (Tri et al. 2021) and South Korea’s use of influencer marketing, show how digital engagement and platform optimization can overcome infrastructure constraints and appeal to younger audiences. Comparative analysis suggests that effective strategies are those that respond to regional needs. For the Philippines, this means marketing should directly address technological and financial barriers, strengthen program credibility, and leverage the country’s high social media usage and strong career-oriented motivations.

2.9 Theoretical relevance

This study draws on three complementary theoretical frameworks to explore the relationship between global marketing strategies and the accessibility of online master’s programs in the Philippines. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis 1989), including its extended form (Venkatesh and Davis 2000), explains how perceived usefulness, ease of use, and social influences shape the adoption of online learning platforms. In the Philippine context, TAM highlights how both technological and attitudinal barriers impact student decisions.
Diffusion of Innovation Theory (Rogers 2003) provides insights into varying adoption rates across Filipino societal segments. Its core attributes – relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability – align with marketing strategies aimed at promoting online education. The Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework (Garrison et al. 2000) addresses the pedagogical dimension by emphasizing teaching, social, and cognitive presence in online learning environments. In a culture where interpersonal connections are vital, effectively marketing the social presence of online programs can help overcome quality-related concerns and psychological resistance.

Figure 1: Theoretical relevance (Rogers 2003; Davis 1989; Venkatesh and Davis 2000; Garrison, Anderson and Archer 2000)
Source: Author

3 Methodology

This qualitative study utilizes a systematic literature review methodology to achieve four specific research goals:
1. To comprehensively map the current state of knowledge regarding accessibility factors affecting online master’s programs in the Philippines.
2. To evaluate the effectiveness of global marketing strategies in addressing these accessibility challenges.
3. To identify gaps between international marketing approaches and local Filipino learner needs.
4. To recommend a multidimensional framework that can guide stakeholders in enhancing accessibility.

A systematic literature review was selected as the optimal methodology because it enables rigorous synthesis of diverse research findings, facilitates identification of knowledge gaps, and supports theory development through systematic analysis of existing evidence (Guillen 2023). This approach is particularly appropriate for examining multidisciplinary topics that span educational technology, marketing, and international higher education domains.
Among the systematic review approaches, this study employs domain-focused reviews. The domain-focused reviews consolidate and build upon knowledge within a specific area, while theoretical reviews assess how certain theories apply within fields, and methodological reviews use specific analytical approaches to reach conclusions (Guillen 2023; Guillen 2022). This domain-based approach directly supports the primary goal of developing at least a baseline framework that can inform both theory and practice.

3.1 Selection of studies

3.1.1 Initial search and inclusion criteria

An extensive search was conducted using Google Scholar and Scopus databases. The following keywords were used: „online master’s degree“, „Philippines“, „higher education“, „accessibility“, and „global marketing“. The initial search yielded 147 journal articles. After applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, only 40 articles were deemed relevant to the research topic.

3.1.2 Inclusion criteria

1. Articles published between 2015 and 2023.
2. Peer-reviewed journals and credible academic sources.
3. Focus on online education, global marketing strategies, and accessibility in higher education.
4. Studies directly or indirectly related to the Philippine context.

The search employed Boolean combinations of primary and secondary keywords:
1. Primary keywords: „online master’s degree“, „digital higher education“, „e-learning master’s“
2. Secondary keywords: „Philippines“, „Southeast Asia“, „developing countries“
3. Tertiary keywords: „accessibility“, „barriers“, „challenges“, „global marketing“, „international education“

A two-stage screening process followed:
1. First-level screening: Title and abstract review against inclusion criteria
2. Second-level screening: Full-text assessment for relevance and quality

3.1.3 Exclusion criteria

1. Non-peer-reviewed articles or grey literature.
2. Studies focusing on primary or secondary education.
3. Articles unrelated to accessibility or marketing of online education.
This rigorous process again identified 40 articles meeting all criteria, with distribution spanning educational technology journals (40%), international higher education publications (35%), and marketing/business journals (25%).

3.2 Relevance of selected articles

Out of the 40 selected articles, the majority (60%) focused on the accessibility and barriers to online education, particularly in developing economies. Approximately 25% explored global marketing strategies, and the remaining 15% analyzed the impact of technological and socioeconomic factors on online learning. This distribution highlights the multifaceted nature of accessibility challenges in the Philippine context.

END OF PART I.

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Kľúčové slová/Key words

online master’s degree, accessibility, international education, global marketing, higher education
online magisterský titul, dostupnosť, medzinárodné vzdelávanie, globálny marketing, vysokoškolské vzdelávanie

JEL klasifikácia/JEL Classification

I23, M31, L86, O33

Résumé

Online magisterský titul: Analýza dostupnosti medzinárodného vzdelávania na Filipínach – perspektíva globálneho marketingu. Časť I.

Táto systematická štúdia skúma dostupnosť online magisterských programov na Filipínach z pohľadu globálneho marketingu. Napriek rastúcej prítomnosti digitálneho vzdelávania v medzinárodnom vysokoškolskom vzdelávaní zostávajú významné medzery v pochopení výziev dostupnosti tohto vzdelávania v rozvojových ekonomikách. Pomocou štruktúrovanej analýzy 40 ťažko dostupných recenzovaných článkov (2015-2023) táto štúdia hodnotí päť kľúčových faktorov prístupnosti: technologickú infraštruktúru, cenovú dostupnosť, reputáciu inštitúcie, kultúrnu relevantnosť a marketingové stratégie. Výskum integruje model prijatia technológie, difúzie inovácií a oblasť skúmania komunity, aby vyvinul multidimenzionálne porozumenie prekážkam v oblasti dostupnosti vzdelania. Zistenia odhaľujú pretrvávajúce digitálne rozdiely, predovšetkým v oblastiach mimo mesta (kde pripojenie na internet dosahuje iba 30-45% úrovne miest). Zistenia ukazujú, ako môžu cielené marketingové stratégie tieto prekážky prekonať. Pandémia COVID-19 urýchlila digitálnu transformáciu a zároveň odhalila obmedzenia infraštruktúry a medzery v pripravenosti. Tento výskum prispieva k viacrozmernému rámcu dostupnosti, ktorý integruje technologické, ekonomické, kultúrne a marketingové dimenzie, ako aj poskytuje praktické poznatky pre vysoké školy, tvorcov politík a globálne vzdelávaných marketérov, ktorí sa snažia zlepšiť dostupnosť digitálneho vzdelávania v rozvojových ekonomikách ako sú Filipíny.

Recenzované/Reviewed

6. March 2025 / 14. March 2025